Hemija Za 4 Razred Gimnazije Pdf

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Chemistry for the 4th Grade of High School: A Collection of Exercises and Lessons

Chemistry is everywhere around us. It is a natural science that studies the chemical properties of substances and their interactions. This page will help you master the chemistry material intended for high school. The lessons are arranged according to the natural-mathematical direction.

The collection of exercises and lessons covers the following topics:

• Carbohydrates

• Lipids

• Alkaloids and antibiotics

• Proteins

• Vitamins and hormones

• Nucleic acids

• Basics of metabolism

• Biotechnology and its possibilities

You can download the PDF file of the collection from this link[^1^]. The file contains 64 pages of exercises, explanations, examples, and solutions. You will need a PDF reader to open it.

Chemistry is a fascinating and useful subject that can help you understand the world around you. We hope this collection will help you improve your knowledge and skills in chemistry.

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Carbohydrates are organic compounds that consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are the main source of energy for living organisms. Carbohydrates can be classified into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates that have one sugar unit, such as glucose and fructose. Disaccharides are composed of two sugar units, such as sucrose and lactose. Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar units, such as starch and cellulose.

Lipids are organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They have various functions in living organisms, such as energy storage, membrane formation, and hormone synthesis. Lipids can be classified into fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes. Fatty acids are long chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms with a carboxyl group at one end. Triglycerides are composed of three fatty acids and one glycerol molecule. Phospholipids are similar to triglycerides but have a phosphate group instead of one fatty acid. Steroids are lipids with a four-ring structure, such as cholesterol and testosterone. Waxes are lipids with a long-chain alcohol and a fatty acid.

Alkaloids and antibiotics are two types of secondary metabolites that have medicinal properties. Alkaloids are nitrogen-containing organic compounds that have a bitter taste and a physiological effect on animals. They are derived from amino acids and can be found in plants, fungi, bacteria, and animals. Some examples of alkaloids are caffeine, nicotine, morphine, and quinine. Antibiotics are substances that can inhibit the growth or kill microorganisms. They are produced by living organisms or synthesized in laboratories. Some examples of antibiotics are penicillin, streptomycin, tetracycline, and erythromycin.

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Proteins are organic compounds that consist of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. They are the most abundant and diverse molecules in living organisms. They have various functions, such as catalyzing reactions, transporting substances, providing structure, regulating processes, and defending against pathogens. Proteins can be classified into four levels of structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. Primary structure is the sequence of amino acids in a protein. Secondary structure is the local folding of the protein backbone into alpha helices or beta sheets. Tertiary structure is the overall three-dimensional shape of the protein. Quaternary structure is the association of two or more protein subunits.

Vitamins and hormones are two types of organic compounds that have regulatory roles in living organisms. Vitamins are essential nutrients that cannot be synthesized by the organism and must be obtained from the diet. They act as coenzymes or precursors for coenzymes that participate in various metabolic reactions. Vitamins can be classified into two groups: water-soluble and fat-soluble. Water-soluble vitamins include vitamin C and the B complex vitamins. Fat-soluble vitamins include vitamin A, D, E, and K. Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted by endocrine glands or cells and travel through the bloodstream to target organs or tissues. They regulate various physiological processes, such as growth, development, reproduction, metabolism, and stress response. Hormones can be classified into three groups: steroids, peptides, and amines.

Nucleic acids are organic compounds that store and transmit genetic information in living organisms. They are composed of nucleotides that consist of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group. Nucleic acids can be classified into two types: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA is the main genetic material that encodes the information for protein synthesis. It has a double helix structure with two complementary strands held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases. RNA is involved in various aspects of protein synthesis, such as transcription, translation, and regulation. It has a single-stranded structure with different types of bases and sugars than DNA.

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